𝐎𝐭𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐚𝐧 𝐂𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐭 𝐀𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐥𝐨𝐠𝐲: 𝐔𝐧𝐞𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐡𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐚 𝐕𝐢𝐛𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐬𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐜 𝐓𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 (𝟏𝟒𝟓𝟎-𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎)

The popular narrative surrounding the history of astrology often posits an early "golden age" during the medieval Arabic period, followed by a subsequent decline. However, recent scholarship, particularly Professor Tunç Şen's book, Forgotten Experts: Astrologers, Science, and Authority in the Ottoman Empire, 1450 to 1600, vividly challenges this notion, revealing a deeply entrenched and remarkably vibrant astrological tradition within the Ottoman Court during the 15th and 16th centuries. Şen's work provides an incredibly detailed and accessible picture of the lives and interactions of these astrologers, shedding light on the social dynamics and high-level power structures of the era. By reframing our understanding, Şen demonstrates that astrology was not merely surviving but was a powerful and impactful force, still very much alive and operating at the highest echelons of society.

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The Institutionalization of Astral Expertise: The Munajjim Unit

A central revelation of Şen's research is the institutionalization of astrology within the Ottoman Court. In the 15th century, a specific unit for astrologers, known as munajjim, was established, mirroring similar specialist units for physicians or architects. This was not entirely unprecedented in Islamic history, as royal patrons often employed various specialists, but the Ottoman case saw a distinct move towards an administrative bureaucracy. The term munajjim itself is significant, as Şen prefers it over "astrologer," noting that it "nicely merges both astrological and astronomical expertise". This unit exhibited remarkable resilience, operating within the Ottoman courtly context for over four centuries, enduring until the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire in the early 20th century.

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The number of astrologers in this unit fluctuated, ranging from one to six at any given time, with one individual serving as the chief astrologer. This variability often depended on the reigning sultan's personal interest in the counsel of astrologers. While some sultans were deeply engaged with their knowledge, leading to a larger contingent of astrologers, others showed less interest, causing the numbers to dwindle. Nevertheless, a munajjim was always present in the court until the very end of the empire. This structure bears striking parallels to Mesopotamian astrological units from 2,000 years earlier, where colleges of astrologers sent reports to the king, often with a head astrologer leading the effort.

Training, Kinship, and the Perks of Courtly Service

Unlike the Mesopotamian tradition, Şen found no evidence of formal schools or colleges dedicated to the training of Ottoman astrologers. Instead, the munajjim unit itself functioned as an "office or school without walls," fostering collective learning and training among its members. Family kinship played a crucial role in knowledge transmission, with positions often passed down from father to son, or through master-student relationships. Training did not typically occur in madrasas, the Islamic higher education institutions, which primarily focused on religious sciences, although astronomy was sometimes taught there.

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Being a court astrologer came with significant advantages beyond regular salaries. The material benefits were substantial, as astrological work required expensive instruments like astrolabes and celestial globes, which were prohibitively costly for ordinary practitioners. Court astrologers had direct access to these precision instruments, often housed in the imperial treasury, and records show they frequently petitioned for access to both instruments and books. This access to resources, including the royal library, likely served as a vital form of "training" in the absence of formal schooling.

A unique aspect of Şen's research is the unparalleled level of documentation available for this period, thanks to the Ottoman Empire's bureaucratic machinery. Historians can access millions of archival materials, including payment receipts, reports, and almanacs, which offer a far more comprehensive picture of astrologers' lives than is available for earlier historical periods.

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The Diverse Roles of Ottoman Court Astrologers

Ottoman court astrologers performed a wide array of duties, deeply integrating astral science into imperial life:

1. Electional Astrology: This was a primary function. Astrologers were constantly consulted to determine auspicious timings for critical events, ranging from the founding of mosques and observatories to military campaigns, wedding parties, and the appointment of high-ranking bureaucrats. For example, Mehmed the Conqueror reportedly consulted astrologers before the 1453 attack on Constantinople, though the specific chart hasn't survived. Sultan Selim I, in 1519, famously postponed an attack on the island of Rhodes for several months based on astrologers' advice that the early and middle parts of the year were inauspicious. Astrologers were also asked to interpret charts retroactively for events like enthronements, where prior consultation records are scarce due to the risks involved with a change of administration.

2. Annual Almanacs: A centerpiece of their work involved presenting elaborate annual almanacs by the spring equinox. These extensive documents contained astrological prognostications for the upcoming year, often categorized by different societal groups (e.g., Venus for musicians and women, Jupiter for religious scholars, Mars for military personnel). Eclipses, viewed as inauspicious omens, were consistently placed at the end of these almanacs and usually interpreted to portend ill fortune for the Ottoman Empire's rivals, not the Ottomans themselves.

3. Astronomy and Precision: The desire for predictive accuracy in astrology was a significant driver for advancements in astronomical observations and calculations. Astrologers frequently complained about outdated or imprecise astronomical tables, which led to discrepancies between calculations and actual celestial events. This pressing need for greater precision fueled demands for observatories, particularly in the Persianid world from the 13th century onwards, though these were costly and often short-lived.

4. Talismans and Medical Advice: Astrologers sometimes engaged in other practices, such as working with talismans. They also provided medical advice in their annual almanacs, suggesting dietary recommendations based on the month's horoscope. Some astrologers, when they perceived greater interest from their patrons, even remarketed themselves as physicians, showcasing a fluidity between these disciplines. Bayezid II's tutor, for instance, authored a significant work on horary astrology.

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Notable Figures and the Golden Age of Bayezid II

Sultan Bayezid II (reigned 1481-1512) emerges as a pivotal figure in the institutionalization and flourishing of Ottoman court astrology. He is portrayed as an almost idealized "philosopher king" with a profound personal interest in a wide range of subjects, especially astrology. Contemporary observers, including Italians, Arabic-speaking poets, Turks, and Iranians, attest to his vast knowledge of theology, astrology, and philosophy. His personal library, a significant portion of which was dedicated to astral sciences, further underscores this interest.

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Bayezid II's reign also saw a strong Persianid influence on Ottoman astrology. Many early court astrologers were either of Persian origin or had studied in Persian lands, reflecting a centuries-long tradition rooted in the Mongol conquest of the 13th century, which brought much of Anatolia and Central Asia under Persianid cultural influence. This connection exposed Ottoman astrologers to rich medieval Islamic and Persianid traditions, as well as earlier Sasanian astral knowledge.

Among the prominent figures connected to Bayezid II was Mu'eyyedzade, his close childhood friend. Despite a youthful escapade involving "partying together" and consuming hashish, which angered Mehmed the Conqueror and forced Mu'eyyedzade to flee to Iran, they reunited when Bayezid became sultan. Mu'eyyedzade became an influential scholar and administrator, owning an extraordinary library of 7,000 books—15% of which were dedicated to astral sciences—eclipsing even the collections of Renaissance polymaths like Galileo or Erasmus. He famously penned a vigorous defense of astrology against a skeptical medieval Islamic philosopher, demonstrating a sophisticated technical understanding of the subject.

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Another fascinating character is Riyazi, a court astrologer from the late 16th century, known for his self-pride and palpable frustration at never achieving the position of chief court astrologer. His lower salary compared to earlier astrologers further fueled his discontent. Riyazi is particularly notable for a unique, lengthy manuscript detailing his argument for an auspicious electional time for a mosque's founding. In this text, he vehemently debated a minute, two-degree difference in the Ascendant (20 vs. 22 degrees Leo rising) with other court astrologers, seeing it as an opportunity to assert his superior expertise. Although the outcome of this particular dispute is uncertain, it highlights the internal discussions and competitive dynamics among the munajjim. Riyazi, also a noted poet, often infused his scientific treatises with verses expressing his anger and frustration. His life was marked by misfortune, including backing the losing prince in a succession civil war, leading to the loss of a patron. He also unsuccessfully petitioned the sultan for funding to build a new observatory, citing discrepancies in existing astronomical calculations.

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The podcast also touches upon the legend of Ozri, an astrologer supposedly executed for a wrong prediction regarding the 1522 Rhodes campaign. However, Şen clarifies this as an anecdote passed down in historical texts, likely untrue, as Ozri appears to have lived much longer. This highlights the pressure on astrologers to deliver accurate predictions, although sultans often rewarded successful predictions or favored astrologers with gifts, robes, money for travel, or even sponsoring weddings.

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Challenges, Decline, and Ambivalence

Despite their institutionalization and influence, Ottoman astrologers faced challenges. The only observatory established in the Ottoman world before the 19th century, built in the late 16th century, was short-lived and destroyed by imperial decree only a few years after its erection. The exact reasons remain hazy, but factors included hostility from Sufi mystics, intellectual rivalries, and public perception. Colossal astronomical instruments, some 15 to 20 meters tall, might have been associated with "magical talismanic objects" by the populace, potentially creating fear or religious objections in the urban fabric. Religious scholars and pious Sufi mystics also often criticized astrology in the Ottoman context.

While astrologers enjoyed high prestige and salaries during Bayezid II's reign, their status began to decline by the second half of the 16th century. Riyazi's lower pay compared to earlier astrologers is a testament to this shift. This period also saw increased competition with other esoteric practitioners, such as geomancers. During Sultan Suleiman's reign, known for his interest in esoteric sciences like letterism (Islamic Qabalah), geomancers, who promoted Suleiman's messianic claims, actively attacked astrologers, asserting the superiority of their own science. This competition contributed to a significant decrease in the prestige and monetary rewards of astrologers, demonstrating that "esoteric" practices were not a monolithic block but distinct fields with competing experts.

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Ultimately, the Ottoman experience reveals an "ambivalence" towards astrologers' expertise. Sultans and decision-makers often took their advice seriously but maintained a degree of skepticism. They valued the presence of astrologers in court but weren't always certain how to fully integrate their knowledge, a dynamic that Şen suggests is not entirely dissimilar to the perception of astrologers in contemporary society.

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Şen's Forgotten Experts masterfully establishes that Ottoman court astrologers constituted a specialized field of expertise, distinct not only from other court specialists like physicians and architects but also from other esoteric studies. It vividly portrays a sophisticated and enduring tradition, challenging the simplistic "decline narrative" and highlighting the rich, bureaucratic documentation that offers an unparalleled glimpse into the world of astral sciences in the Ottoman Empire.